Atheists and Atheism before the Enlightenment

Michael Hunter, Emeritus Professor of History at Birkbeck, University of London, has published a new book: Atheists and Atheism Before the Enlightenment: The English and Scottish Experience (2023). Here I wish to give a brief overview of its contents. Over time I will return to this post to add more content and thoughts.

In his introduction, Hunter outlines the book’s focus on atheism in early modern England and Scotland, emphasizing the nature and perception of atheism during the period. He begins by defining atheism not just as a disbelief in God but as a broader cultural and intellectual phenomenon. The chapter, moreover, discusses the complex interplay between genuine irreligion and the exaggerated fear of atheism, which was often fueled by religious and political agendas. Hunter highlights the “assurance” that characterized atheists, portraying them as confident and articulate in their disbelief, contrasting with the prevalent religious doubt among the general populace.

Chapter two examines in more detail the terminology and conceptual challenges in studying atheism in early modern England. Hunter places “atheism” in quotation marks to indicate the fluidity of its meaning at the time, which ranged from outright denial of God’s existence to broader accusations of heresy and moral deviance. The chapter also explores the societal and intellectual anxieties surrounding irreligion, noting how the fear of atheism often overshadowed the actual presence of atheists. Hunter analyzes key texts and figures from the period, revealing how the discourse on atheism was shaped by rhetorical exaggeration and moral panic.

Chapter 3 looks at the intersection of atheism and religious doubt among devout believers. Hunter references Alec Ryrie’s work on the emotional history of doubt, contrasting the overt irreligion of atheists with the private, often unspoken doubts of the faithful. This chapter argues that understanding the covert doubts of religious individuals is crucial for a comprehensive picture of early modern atheism. Hunter discusses notable figures and texts that reveal the inner struggles of believers, highlighting how these doubts contributed to broader religious and philosophical debates.

Chapter 4 investigates the state of atheism and irreligion in the period following 1660, particularly during the Restoration. It highlights the persistence of many characteristics from the pre-Civil War era, such as the broad and inclusive definitions of atheism, the conflation of real and imagined irreligious attitudes, and the sensationalized stereotypes created by anti-atheist literature. This literature combined elements of naturalism, secularism, and irreverent wit, often associated with coffee-house culture, to create a composite “atheist” stereotype. Indeed, the chapter emphasizes the role of this stereotype in promoting concern among the devout about immorality and the potential for deviation from orthodox beliefs.

For instance, Hunter explores notable figures and episodes from this period, including the subversive writings of Sir Walter Ralegh and the scandalous accusations against the poet Christopher Marlowe. The chapter underscores the exaggerated nature of anti-atheist rhetoric, which sought to alarm the religious and promote greater zeal by equating minor deviations from orthodoxy with outright atheism.

Hunter argues that this exaggerated fear of atheism was instrumental in expressing broader anxieties about religious doubt and the potential for articulate irreligion. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the influence of Thomas Hobbes and the perceived spread of “Hobbism” in the years after 1660, setting the stage for further exploration in subsequent chapters​.

Chapter 5 examines the relationship between atheism and the aristocracy in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Hunter discusses how certain aristocrats, influenced by intellectual currents and social circles, began to exhibit irreligious tendencies. He highlights figures like the physician William Cheselden and the antiquary Joseph Ames, who were suspected of atheism, and Martin Folkes, known for his infidel views. Hunter describes how these aristocrats’ views and behaviors, often articulated in private circles or informal settings like coffee-houses, contributed to a growing culture of skepticism and irreligion.

The chapter also addresses the influence of deism among the aristocracy, with prominent doctors like Sir Hans Sloane and Richard Mead advocating for natural explanations of phenomena traditionally attributed to divine intervention. Hunter suggests that these developments gradually opened the door to more widespread acceptance of non-theistic perspectives, despite the ongoing dominance of orthodox religious beliefs

Chapter 6 explores the spread of irreligious ideas among the broader public, focusing on how these ideas were disseminated through various channels. Hunter discusses the role of pamphlets, books, and public debates in making skeptical and atheistic ideas accessible to a wider audience. He examines the influence of popular literature and the role of public intellectuals in challenging orthodox religious views.

The chapter also highlights the ways in which irreligious ideas were often cloaked in humor or satire to avoid direct confrontation with authorities. Hunter also addresses the impact of educational institutions and the gradual shift in public attitudes towards more secular and critical perspectives on religion. The chapter suggests that while outright atheism remained rare, the seeds of skepticism were being sown more broadly across society.

Chapter 7 looks into the intellectual underpinnings of irreligion, examining the philosophical and scientific developments that challenged traditional religious beliefs. Hunter discusses the impact of the Enlightenment and the rise of empirical science on the credibility of religious explanations. The chapter explores the works of key philosophers and scientists who questioned the existence of God and promoted naturalistic explanations for phenomena.

Hunter also addresses the role of higher education and scholarly societies in fostering an environment where irreligious ideas could be debated and developed. He highlights the contributions of figures like John Locke and Isaac Newton, whose ideas, while not explicitly atheistic, paved the way for a more secular understanding of the world. The chapter concludes by discussing the gradual shift towards a more critical and questioning approach to religion among the educated elite.

Chapter 8 investigates the broader social implications of the rise of atheism and irreligion. Hunter explores how these ideas influenced social norms, political ideologies, and cultural practices. He examines the tension between religious authorities and proponents of atheism, highlighting key conflicts and debates that shaped public discourse.

The chapter also addresses the ways in which irreligious ideas affected moral and ethical considerations, including attitudes towards issues like marriage, education, and governance. Hunter suggests that while atheism was far from mainstream, its increasing visibility challenged traditional power structures and contributed to the gradual secularization of society. The chapter concludes by reflecting on the legacy of this period for modern secular thought and the ongoing debates about the role of religion in public life

The conclusion of Atheists and Atheism before the Enlightenment synthesizes the findings from the preceding chapters to draw overarching conclusions about the state of atheism and irreligion in pre-Enlightenment England and Scotland. First, atheistic ideas were predominantly expressed orally rather than in written form. This oral nature of atheistic expression made it challenging for authorities to regulate and suppress such ideas effectively. The contrast between individuals like Tinkler Ducket, who attempted to destroy incriminating letters, and more vocal atheists who openly expressed their views, highlights the varied responses to atheism during this period.

Second, Hunter draws attention to the differences between Scotland and England. In Scotland, a more homogenous public life allowed for harsher responses to atheism, such as Thomas Aikenhead’s execution. In contrast, England’s more diffuse public life meant that while outrage over atheism was common, it was harder to enforce punitive measures.

Third, figures like John Toland, who sought notoriety through public displays of heterodoxy, and George Turnbull, who initially embraced freethinking but later reverted to orthodoxy, exemplify the varied trajectories of individuals engaged with atheistic ideas. The presence of freethinking elements in Scottish culture, despite its ostensibly orthodox façade, suggests a more complex intellectual landscape than previously acknowledged.

Fourth, in England, the reaction to atheism included legislative measures like the Blasphemy Act of 1698, which targeted anti-Trinitarian opinions and other forms of irreligion. Public discourses, such as the Boyle Lectures, aimed to counter atheistic sentiments, reflecting widespread concern about the influence of irreligious ideas.

And with this, Hunter comes full circle to his earlier work on the Boyle Lectures.